Objective: Learn to identify the different classes of epithelial and connective tissues.
Reading: RR&K: Chapters 4-6.
Light Microscopic Features of
Various Epithelia
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| Simple squamous | 1 | Cells are very flattened; nuclei flattened or rounded; "fried egg shape" | None that can be seen in LM | Mesothelial & endothelial cells have flattened nuclei; thin loops of Henle have ovoid nuclei |
| Stratified squamous, non-keratinized | many | Surface layer flattened; inner layer polygonal | Usually none visible in LM | |
| Stratified squamous, keratinized | many | Surface layer flattened, basal layer columnar with polygonal cells in between | Keratinized layer of cells at the surface | |
| Simple cuboidal | 1 | Cubic | Occasionally microvilli & cilia | Very common in glandular epithelium |
| Stratified cuboidal | usually 2 | Cubic in both surface and basal layers | none | Rare; identifying feature of sweat gland ducts |
| Simple columnar | 1 | Tall cells with polygonal cross section | Cilia & microvilli | |
| Stratified columnar | usually 2 | Surface cells are tall; basal layer cuboidal or polygonal | usually none visible in LM | Rare; found in salivary gland ducts, rectal-anal & gastroesophageal junctions |
| Pseudostratified columnar | 1 | Columnar shaped cells dominate with short basal layer | Cilia & stereocilia | All cells touch basal lamina; only some cells reach surface |
| Transitional | many | Dome shaped when organs are empty; flattened when they are distended | none | Found only in urinary tract, i.e. pelvis of the kidney, ureter, urinary bladder |
A. Small intestine
Simple columnar, simple squamous (mesothelium, endothelium), lamina
propria, dense irregular connective tissue
90D Jejunum
92A Ileum
Mesothelium surrounds
the organ and can be seen very clearly in this slide. Ignore the rounded
nuclei in the next outermost band but focus on the flattened nuclei on
the very outside. These are from the mesothelium. Several large blood vessels
can be found whose lumens are lined with an endothelium.
Focus next on the luminal epithelium. This simple columnar epithelium consists of two types of cells: absorptive enterocytes and the goblet cells. The enterocytes have a brush border which will appear as a slightly less darkly stained band at the apical side of the cell separated by a darkly stained line. What is this line? Underlying the epithelium is a highly cellular connective tissue layer called the lamina propria. It stains darkly because of the large number of nuclei. The region that is darkly stained around the lumen is called the mucosa. It contains the epithelium, lamina propria and a thin layer of smooth muscle (muscularis mucosae). Underlying the mucosa is a dense, irregular connective tissue layer. At the base of the mucosa are glands that are also made up of a columnar epithelium. What is different about the glandular epithelium?
Ileum has the same epithelia and connective tissue as jejunum. However, the columnar epithelium has more goblet cells but still the brush border can be seen. Notice that in some places the epithelium looks stratified with many layers. What causes this? Again underlying the epithelium is the lamina propria. Under the mucosa is a relatively large layer of dense, irregular connective tissue.
Simple squamous epithelium (endothelium), connective tissue, elastic
tissue.
48 Aorta,
elastic tissue, human
This is an example of an elastic
artery (Fig. 12.3, page 307). The dark lines running the length of the
section are the elastic lamina (plate 46, page 323). Examine
the luminal surface. The nuclei of the endothelial cells are stained
slightly darker than the surrounding tissue. This is probably stained with
eosin and Verhoeff’s. Verhoeff's stain is specific for the elastic laminae,
which form concentric layers. There is no basophilic stain like hematoxylin
present to bring out the cellular components so the nuclei are only slightly
stained.
52A Vena cava, Masson, human
(Fig. 12.12, page 316) With Masson
staining the cytoplasm appears brown whereas connective tissue stains
green. The brown stained material is mostly smooth muscle cells. Nuclei
in general are only faintly stained, but because the endothelial
cell nuclei are rather dense and flat, they are visible when viewed down
their diameter. Examine the luminal surface for elongated darkly staining
structures, which are the nuclei of endothelial cells. Also look around
for smaller blood vessels. The small arteries are collapsed which has the
effect of rounding up the endothelial cell nuclei (plate 47). They are
still simple squamous.
52B Vena cava, V&E, human
This slide is stained with Verhoeff's
stain to visualize the elastic fibers, and eosin to shown the
cellular structures. You will see many, dark-staining nuclei on the luminal
surface which are the endothelium. Look around for smaller vessels, called
vasa vasorum and capillaries to see if you can identify the endothelium
in them. If you do not know what a blood vessel or capillary looks like,
ask your instructor. In arteries, often the endothelium is folded or wrinkled
due to contraction of the smooth muscle surrounding the lumen.
C. Skin
Epithelia: simple squamous, simple cuboidal, keratinized stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal
Connective tissues: dense and loose irregular, adipose
63A Ax. skin, Masson, human
Examine the large glands in the
center of the section. These are apocrine sweat glands (plate 60, page
397). The glands themselves are coiled, tubular glands with a simple cuboidal
epithelium. The ducts however, are stratified cuboidal. Both the glands
and the ducts are highly coiled which has the effect of presenting the
epithelium in many different orientations, some of which may appear to
have many layers. Study the difference in the appearance between simple
cuboidal sweat glands and stratified cuboidal (two layers of cells). Examine
the epithelium at the surface (plate 59, page 395). It is stratified squamous,
keratinized. Your slide may also have sebaceous glands (plate 61, page
399) which are stratified cuboidal glands.
Immediately underlying the stratified
squamous epithelium of the epidermis is a thin layer of loose irregular
connective tissue (i.e. relatively cellular with relatively small collagen
fibers). Further from the epidermis, the connective tissue becomes denser
(less cellular, larger collagen fibers). You may also find adipose
tissue deep to this connective tissue.
62C Scalp,
Masson, human
62A Scalp,
H&E, monkey
Both of these slides are of basically
the same structures, but with different stains. In the H&E stain, the
collagen fibers are not heavily contrasted but with Masson stain they come
out a brilliant orange. See if you can find examples of stratified cuboidal
sweat gland ducts and simple cuboidal sweat glands.
64 Skin, foot, human
This is an example of thick skin
where the stratified squamous epithelium is thick (but this by itself does
not define thick skin). Notice how the cells flatten out toward the surface
and how the nuclei become darker. These are dying cells. The white band
(stratum lucidum) marks the beginning of the keratinized layer.
D. Kidney
2 Simple
cuboidal epithelium
This is a section from the kidney
medulla and it has many tubules and blood vessels It is stained with Mallory
trichrome which makes the collagen fibers and the basal lamina appear blue.
At the edges of the section are tubules cut in longitudinal section and
at the center are tubules cut in cross section. Concentrate on the tubules
with the taller epithelium and ignore for the time being the tubules with
the squamous epithelium. After looking at the edges and the center examine
the transition zone. See how the transition, where the tubules are cut
obliquely can be confusing.
124B Kidney, rabbit, PAS&H
124C Kidney; rabbit, Masson
RR&K Fig. 1.2 (page 6), Plates 93-96 (page 585-591)
These are 2 sections from the same organ but stained differently to bring our the connective tissue. PAS&H stands for Per-iodic Acid-Schiff & Hematoxylin, the hematoxylin being added as a counter stain to bring out some cellular details. All these sections are oriented on the slides in the same way. With the label at the left and readable, the cortex of the kidney runs along the upper right hand side, the medulla along the lower left. When you mount the slide on the microscope, it will be just the reverse, i.e. cortex at the lower left, medulla at the upper right. In this lab, we are interested in both cortex and medulla. The kidney consists of many tubules, most of which are simple cuboidal, some of which are simple squamous and blood vessels that are lined with a simple squamous epithelium. PAS stains the basal lamina an intense red color. However, because the basal lamina is very thin, it will appear as a very thin line at the base of the tubules. When favorably oriented, you should be able to see this line. The glomeruli, which is the filtration structure of the kidney, has a thin capsule that is lined on the inside with a simple squamous epithelium (you can see this in Plate 1 of RR&K). This is called the parietal layer of Bowman’s capsule. In the medulla, you will see large amounts of tubules with a simple cuboidal epithelium and many more with a simple squamous epithelium. There are two kinds of tubules with simple squamous epithelium, blood vessels (vasa recta) and thin limbs of Henle. In the PAS stained slide you cannot tell the difference.
Look next at the Masson stained slide.
The RBCs stain an intense red color and cartilagenous connective tissue
is an intense blue-green. The RBCs do not have their classic biconcave
shape because of preparation artifacts. The presence of RBCs identifies
the vasa recta. In Masson stain, you will notice that the basal lamina
is a thin green line under the epithelium. After you look at the tubules,
try to find the minor calyx. You can identify it by the presence of adipose
tissue, and a lot of blue-green staining tissue. If your slide is mounted
correctly in the microscope, you will find the calyx at the top of the
section. Think of the calyx as a funnel. Lining the inside of the calyx
is a transitional epithelium, which you can identify by its multilayer
appearance. The kidney is surrounded by a capsule of dense irregular connective
tissue which is partially preserved along the outside of the cortex. It
can be identified as the blue green material along the lower left hand
edge of the section (as you see it in the microscope).
E. Oviduct
Ciliated simple columnar epithelium, lamina propria, endothelium, irregular connective tissue.
134 Fimbrial
end of the oviduct, Masson
This organ is highly folded and
the columnar epithelium consists of both ciliated and non-ciliated cells.
The cilia are just resolvable with the 40X objective. The epithelium is
classified simple columnar even though it may not appear so because of
section orientation. Identification is difficult because of the highly
folded nature of the epithelium and the highly cellular lamina propria
that underlies it. Search for areas where the epithelium is thinner. There
are numerous arteries coiled through the outer parts of the organ. If you
examine these you will see well preserved examples of endothelial cells.
F. Trachea
Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium, goblet cells, simple cuboidal glands.
4 Ciliated
epithelium
120A Trachea
Trachea (plate 90, page 553) has
several tissues. The large plates of cartilage we will examine next week.
For today, concentrate on the epithelium and the sero-mucous glands, which
may be present in some sections. These are simple cuboidal glands.
Goblet cells are everywhere in the epithelium interspersed among
the ciliated cells. In pseudostratified epithelia, there is an extra
layer of cells at the base. These do not reach the lumen but the upper
layer of cells reaches the basal lamina. Hence the pseudostratification.
The cilia can be resolved at 40X by stopping down the condenser a little.
G. Epididymis
Stereocilia, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, basal lamina, terminal bar
149 Testis
& epididymis
(plate 108, page 671). Look only
at the epididymis (the region pictured above) and ignore for the time being
the testis, which has a more complicated epithelium and structure. This
is a sliver stained section so the basal lamina stands out as a
dark circle around the base of the epithelium. This slide is nice for several
reasons. The epithelium is well preserved but the basal cells are sparse
in some places. In some areas the terminal bar can be seen as a
dark dot at the apex of the epithelium. Individual stereocilia cannot
be resolved but they tend to fix into clumps that are visible. The basal
layer of epithelial cells is sparse and compressed down at the basal lamina.
In places where the tubules are cut obliquely, the terminal bar
can be seen en face and has a darkly staining polygonal appearance.
H. Esophagus
Stratified squamous, non-keratinized; in the stomach: simple columnar
5 Stratified
squamous epithelium, rabbit
79C Esophagus
& stomach junction
All of these slides are of esophagus
and show the non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Note the junction
in 79c which shows the transition from stratified squamous epithelium of
the esophagus to simple columnar epithelium characteristic of the stomach.
The stomach epithelium is not quite as well preserved as the stratified
squamous. Note the flattened appearance of the stratified squamous epithelium
near the surface and contrast it later with transitional epithelium.
I. Mammary gland
Stratified cuboidal epithelium, dense irregular connective tissue, loose connective tissue, adipose tissue
143C Mammary
gland, inactive
The mammary glands of inactive breast
consists of mainly stratified cuboidal ducts. The glandular tissue forms
under the influence of the pituitary hormone, prolactin. Notice the difference
in the connective tissue close to the ducts. This is loose, irregular connective
tissue (p. 711, fig. 22.35). It has a lower density of collagen fibers
than that further away, which is classified as dense irregular connective
tissue.
J. Salivary gland ducts
Stratified columnar & simple cuboidal epithelium, adipose & loose connective tissue
102A Submandibular (submaxillary) gland, human
101B Parotid
gland, human
Look at least one of these two slides.
Both of these slides have a large exocrine duct with a stratified columnar
epithelium. They also have numerous smaller ducts with simple cuboidal
epithelium. Surrounding the duct is a loose irregular connective tissue.
K. Ureter
Transitional epithelium, lamina propria
8 Transitional epithelium, rabbit bladder
This is a 1.5µm thick plastic
section stained with basic fuschin and methylene blue. Fuschin is an acid
dye that can be applied at different pH for different effects. The term
basic fuscin means that it was applied at a basic pH. Methylene blue is
also a basic dye and stains nuclei among other things. RBCs stain deep
blue with this combination, collagen is red, smooth muscle is deep purple-gray.
The orientation of the section is probably random so the terms top and
bottom of the section with respect to the glass slide are not too useful.
Consider the top of the section, the region with the transitional epithelium.
The epithelium is relatively pale staining. Immediately underneath the
epithelium is a red staining area, which is dense irregular connective
tissue. This contrast should make it easy to find the epithelium. The high
level of folding occurs because the bladder was empty at the time of fixation.
In a full bladder, the epithelium would be straightened out. Note that
the cells are rounded at all levels. This differs from stratified squamous
which has cells with flattened nuclei at the surface layers. Because the
section is so thin, not all cells show nuclei. Pan through to the other
side of the tissue to the next natural edge immediately opposite the transitional
epithelium. This edge is lined with a simple squamous epithelium, i.e.
a mesothelium. Nuclei are relatively rare in this section but you should
be able to find some as you pan along the edge. The nuclei of a mesothelium
are characteristically very flat if the structure has been maintained through
fixation and handling. Note for the time being, the masses of purple staining
tissue. This is smooth muscle.
When studying connective tissues structurize the information according to:
A. ADIPOSE TISSUE - White fat (unilocular) can be found almost anywhere. Brown fat is usually found in animals that hibernate and in newborn infants.
9b Adipose
tissue (frozen section, fat staining)
In the processing of this tissue,
the fat droplet has been retained and appears a peach color. This is unilocular
fat.
9a Adipose
tissue, trichrome stain
Unilocular fat has a appearance
much like clumps of soap bubbles. The tissue has a very lacy appearance
because the processing has removed the fat droplet. Where the nucleus has
been retained in the section, the cell has very much the appearance of
a signet ring due to removal of the fat droplet during tissue preparation.
The trichrome stain (Masson) of this slide enhances the connective tissue.
B. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Areolar tissue
10a Areolar
tissue
10b Areolar
tissue
The slides are both spreads of tissue,
not sections. Collagen fibers stain pink and nuclei of fibroblasts stain
blue. In sections the collagen fibers appear irregularly shaped. In spreads,
they are highly uniform. By carefully focusing this slide at higher magnifications
you can distinguish elastic fibers stained deep purple with resorcin-fuchsin.
Elastic fibers have coiled ends. Between fibers find the nuclei of fibrocytes
embedded into the ground material.
2. Lamina propria – lies under epithelia of mucous membranes
90d Jejunum
92a Ileum,
c.s.
Lamina propria contains a resident
population of different cell types including fibroblasts, adipose cells
and mast cells that you may be able to identify in your slides. Wandering
cells that you might find include lymphocytes and plasma cells. See if
you can find any of these and if you can sketch what you find. Mast cells
have highly granular cytoplasm (Fig. 5.17), lymphocytes have very little
cytoplasm (plate 6.4), the nucleus of plasma cells has a "cartwheel" appearance
(plate 6.4) and adipocytes have a "signet ring" appearance.
C. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Regular
11b White
Fibrous Tissue (tendon)
This slide reveals the fiber and
cell arrangement of dense, regular connective tissue of muscle tendon.
Note how the cells are elongated and parallel to the long axis of the fibers
and how parallel the fibers. The fact that the fibers are not completely
straight is a measure of a certain elasticity in the tissue and a lack
of tension on the fibers when fixed for histology.
62c Scalp,
Masson, human
62a Scalp,
H&E, monkey
If you have not looked at one of
the skin slides by this time, examine one of these. The connective tissue
layer immediately under the surface epithelium is classified as loose connective
tissue, called the papillary layer. Immediately underneath is a layer with
larger collagen fibers, called the reticular layer, which is dense, irregular
connective tissue. Note the difference between these layers.
D. RETICULAR Tissue
12 Reticular tissue
This slide of lymph node has been stained specifically for reticular fibers, which show up as black strands. Cellular details are very sparse. Some slides have adipose tissue attached.
E. ELASTIC FIBERS
13 Ligamentum nuchae
This tissue has many large elastic
fibers coursing through. There is both a longitudinal and a cross section
through the fibers.