Crime Victims 
Index
Introduction
How many victimization?
Nature of Victimization
(Tark, Jong Yeon)
Effects of Victimization
What do they need?
How do we help them?
Bibliography
Introduction
Crime is one of the main issues in the mass media and everyday conversation. Crime happens everyday, everywhere, to everybody. However, once it occurs to each individual, it often turns out to be a terrible experience which can not easily be overcome. What is more, until now victims have suffered from the public and the criminal justice system as well.(Reiff, 1979) Though there have been new successful trends to focus on victim's rights in the criminal justice system in the last two decades, we still have a long way to go.
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According to The National Crime Victim Survey
(NCVS), there has been a continuous decline (6%) in the number of
criminal victimizations since the NCVS began in 1973.
On the other hand, Uniform
Crime Report(UCR) reported that
there has been a continuous crime increase. In 1994, 42 percent of
all crimes were reported to police, which was the basis of UCR--the highest
since 1973, when it was 32 percent.(NVC)
Nature of Victimization
According to The National Crime Victim Survey (NCVS) "crime does not happen randomly." The exposure to risks linked to lifestyle and routine activities cause certain consistent victimization. (Davis & Lurigio & Skogan, 1997) Victimization is more likely to happen to certain individuals, especially for violent crime. Specifically blacks and minority young males are the most vulnerable groups to violent crime. What is more, the offenders and the victims seem to have links.(Davis, 1997) New Lombrosians like Jeffrey and Bloom assert that thanks to the modern biology, neurology, psychology they can say there is genetic tendency to be violently delinquent. (Faust, 1997) The same reasoning, also, can be applied to victims; that is the victim's behavior type (such as aggressiveness) causes the violent reaction, which lead to victimization. (Ziegenhagen, 1977)
Hilang(1978) in America and Sparks, Genn, and
Dodd(1977) in Britain found the evidence of victimization proneness.
Personal history, demographic factors & behavior patterns have
a relation with that proneness. According to Canada's Solicitor General
(1988), not only domestic violence victims, but also robbery victims and
sexual assault victims appeared to have 9 times and 35 times greater chance
of revictimization. The National Board for Crime Prevention(1994)
showed that households once burglarized have 4 times as many chance than
unburglarized houses.(Davis, 1997)
How about victim precipitation?
Does a girl wearing a miniskirt cause rape?
The Victim Precipitation theory was first introduced by Von Hentig in the 1940s: "The victim shapes and molds the criminals," or 'victim precipitation' leaded to be examined by the First International national Symposium on Victimology held in Jerusalem in 1973.(Galaway, 1981) In his criminal homicide study, Marvine Wolfgang said that twenty six percent of the 588 Philadelphia slayings during 1948 to 1952 were facilitated by the victims. He said that "the victim is a direct , positive precipitator in the crime."(Davis, 1997). Another study by Voss and Hepburn found a 38% rate in Chicago murders. According to Mulvihill and Tumin(1969) , 14% of aggravated assaults, 4% of rapes, and 8% of robberies could be defined as victim precipitated. Race turned out to have a role in precipitation, unlike age and victim-offender relationship.(Galaway, 1981)
Blame the Victims?
However, these studies share some fatal problems, such as definitional problems (what is precipitation?; it was highly dependant on researcher's own opinion) and over reliance on police data (how can police measure successful resistance?), which often underestimates successful resistance and unknown crime as well.(Davis, 1997) Actually, victim-precipitation theory, by von Hentig, Mendelsohn in 1940s, was refuted as an outdated theory. They knew little about the basics of victimization, including the magnitude of the problem or its demographics.(Sayles, 1991) Moreover, the basic assumption of precipitation, S-R(stimulus-response) theory ala Pavlov, can not be successfully applied to human beings.(Galaway, 1981) Strangers perpetrate only 29% of violent crime and over three-quarters of the victims of both minor assault(80%) and sexual assault(82%) knew their assailants.(GSS,1993) Also, according to NCVS, victims do resist(e.g. yelling for help, trying to flee,as well as fighting) their assailants in various way. 75% of violent crimes show evidence of self-protection. (Davis, 1997)
Conclusion
Just look at the tremendous crime statistics!--11
million violent crimes a year.
We should look at the reality that crime is random,
senseless, and can happen to anyone(5 out of 6) regardless of the precautions
that are taken to prevent victimization. "Victims suffered
the fate not because they failed personally to properly accommodate to
society, but because they have had few opportunities or resources to better
protect themselves, and because social conditions (not victims) promote
crime regardless of their actions. Unfortunately, we have used victim precipitation
politically to pressure the public to make personal accomomdations to avoid
crime. Yet, when crime occurs, we blame the victim for failing to take
sufficient precautions." (Elias, 1986)
What should we do?
Thanks to above studies, now we can focus on victims vulnerability reduction. Nowadays many victim-oriented programs, such as rape prevention and treatment, are offered by some organizations like Office of Justice Program and The UC Davis Rape Prevention Education Program (Pavnet, NCJRS)
| Effects
of Victimization
The trauma of victimization is a direct result of crime. Many crime victims tend to suffer from developing major mental disorders as well as physical. |
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1. Physical Injury
"Over 24,000 people are murdered in each
year. 1/3 of violent crime victim suffer from physical injury. Of
injured victims, about half required some medical care, 19% were treated
at a hospital, and 4% spent at least on night in the hospital."
(Zawitz,1993 as cited in Davis, 1997)
2. Mental Problem
Basically they lose the safety feeling.--Fear
of crime
Criminal victimization can cause both short-term
and long-term stress reactions in victim survivors. When a person experiences
victimization, there may be persistent trauma and stress reactions for
years like PTSD(by
NVC); that is crime has a persistent impact on
the psychological functioning of many victims. They became fatigued, unable
to sleep, or have increased or decreased appetite PTSD(by
NVC), as well as they suffers from cuts,
bruises, or broken arms and legs. (NVC)
According to New York Times, "Crime Victims are 10 times more likely than average to be severely depressed, even after years. 40% of rape victim, greatly suffer from emotional effect, thought suicide, and 20% really did. Also, one in 12 robbery victims has a serious mental health problem. And even non-violent victims such as fraud can extreme psychological impact."
This Post Traumatic Stress Disorder(PTSD), is also noticed and studied recently in victims , which was initially discovered in combat veterans. PTSD have been studied by National Crime Victim Research and Treatment Center, National Institute of Mental Health, etc. What is more, the trauma have been caused and worsened by the criminal justice system itself, like Police and prosecutors.
3. Economic Losses
According to the 1991 NCVS, the direct cash and property losses for
victims for personal robbery, personal and household larceny, house hold
burglary, and motor vehicle theft totaled------! $19 billion. "Victimizations
generate $105 billion annually in property and productivity losses and
outlays for medical expenses. This amounts to an annual "crime tax"
of roughly $425 per person. When the values of pain, long-term emotional
trauma, disability, and risk of death are taken into consideration,
the costs rise to $450 billion annually (or $1,800 per person)."(Miller
& Cohen & Wiersema, 1996)
According to the 1992 NCVS data, 35% of personal, 24% of household
crime involves losses less than $50. Only 12% of personal, 24% of
household crimes resulted in losses greater than $500.(BJS, 1994)
When it comes to medical costs, 8% of crimes resulted in less than $50
and 15% in $50-$249 and 42% ended in over $250. It is noteworthy
that 35% of respondent said that they didn’t know about the medical costs.
(BJS,
1994)
4. Society
Bureau
of Justice Statistics(BJS) estimated that the cost of
American criminal justice system is $45.6 billion a year. Private
security costs have been estimated to be more than $20 billion.
Finally, the indirect effects of crime and fear of crime on neighborhood
disinvestment, deindustrialization, and declining commercial vitality are--------impossible
to measure(Davis, 1997)
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Most Important Problem Indicated
by Victim (Reiff, 1979)
Specific Financial Assistance Needs Indicated by Victim (Reiff, 1979)
Is it just Money?
According to Reiff, victims tend to express just one need(45%) and they are "a multi-problem population"; that is one most serious need could cover the others. What is more, above tables do not necessarily represent all victims. They need money, a doctor, and a lawyer, and they need it immediately.
What is more, only about 1/3 of crimes were reported in 1992(NCVS).
It should be noticed that victims were apprehensive about how they would
be treated and whether they would be believed. (Kidd & Cajet, as cited
in Davis, 1997)
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There are more than 8,000 organizations, which offers many services to the victims in the U.S. Their programs include domestic violence shelters, rape crisis centers, child abuse programs, and victim services in law enforcement agencies.(NCJRS) Crisis intervention, counseling, emergency shelter, court notification, case information, and referral for services are offered by those programs.
Assisting Acts and efforts
Since the late 1960s and early 1970s, victims rights movements have
started. Largely thanks to Feminist groups, who want to support the rape
victims and other female victims, and the conservative, (or get tough on
offender group) victims have new focus within the criminal justice system
and researchers.(Sayles, 1991) Since the 1980s, consequently,
there has been a happier music to victim's ears.
The federal government
enacted;
By the 1984 Victims of Crime Act(VOCA),
Crime Victims Fund, which collect fines, penalty assessments, and bond
forfeitures from convicted Federal criminals was established.
The Office for Victims
of Crime(OVC) is in charge of this fund distribution to every
states, basically $200,000 annually. States award VOCA grants to about
3,000 public and private organizations, which help victims. The states
also must set aside additional fund to aid other violent victims such as
survivors of homicide victims and victims of intoxicated drivers.(NCJRS)
Above acts are mainly promoted by the
recommendations of the
President's Task Force on Victims of Crime which included
the recommendation that " the sixth Amendment be amended to guarantee
victims a rights to be present and to be heard at all critical stages of
judicial proceedings and other recommendations for victims financial problems."and
other recommendations, which encouraged the establishment of legal
supports for victims. (OVC)
Victims participatory reforms have started
due to the recommendations. Starting with Alabama about 24 states adopted
this recommendation. These acts includes Victim
impact statements(or,VIS),the
most common reform and Victim Statements of Opinion(VSO),quite controversial
reform.(Kelly & Erez, 1977)
At present
"Forty-five states have enacted victims bill of rights. The scope of these statutes varies from mandating politeness toward victims(RhodeIsland), to establishing a victim’s right to be present and heard(Florida), to allowing victims to sit at the prosecutor’s table during trial(Alabama)"(Kelly & Erez, 1997) Moreover, 29 states have passed constitutional amendments for victim’s rights as of the end of 1996. In 1996, 8 states approved constitutional amendments to give victim’s rights greater permanence and visibility.(NVC) Victim participation in parole hearings are allowed in forty states, and plea bargaining is allowed in at least half the states."(Kelly & Erez, 1997)
Every state has the victim compensation program(NVC) About $250 million is being paid to more than 100,000 victims each year The average amount paid to each victim applying for compensation is about $2,000.(NASVCB,1995) "By 1988, restitution was authorized or required in virtually every state as a condition of probation. In half of the states, restitution is provided -in addition to, in lieu of sentence. and in some states as a condition of parole, suspended sentence, and a condition of work release."(Smith & Hillenbrand, 1997) Victim Offender Reconciliation Programs are also available usually in juvenile misdemeanor cases.
Consequently, victims have a better position
than before thanks to above acts, state constitutional
amendments, and Attorney
General Guidelines for Victim and Witness Assistance and similar efforts.
What is more, there is new effort to support the victims rights in federal
constitutional level.--- Crime Victims'
Rights Amendment by Senator
Dianne Feinstein and Senator
Jon Kyl and their affiliates.
"When a judge balances defendants' rights in the Federal
Constitution against victims' rights in a statute or a state constitution,
the defendants' rights almost always prevail. We want the rights of the
victim to get equal weight. When a plea bargain is entered in public,
a criminal is sentenced, a defendant is let out on bail, the victim
ought to know about it and ought to have a say. We must do everything in
our power to enhance the protection of victims' rights now."
During President. Clinton Endorsement speech (June 25,
1996) |
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Web Sites Organizations
the others
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Books and Thesis Books
Thesis
Web Document
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If you have any comment for this page, please, let me know your opinion.
Mail me!
Tark, Jong Yeon(jtt5253@garnet.acns.fsu.edu)
Graduate Student at School
of Criminology and Criminal Justice
This material is for
the New Media in Criminolgy course by Dr.
Cecil Greek.
