On this date five years ago a huge explosion rocked the Federal Building in Oklahoma City. The building was destroyed and 168 people died, including seven children. Because of this powerful attack on the United States, the entire world mobilized to help. Among other good things that happened resulting from this major act of domestic terrorism was the Green Cross Projects and the program for certifying traumatologists.

This Journal had been planned for nearly a year. After the bombing incident, with all its symbolism, it was important that we link our history to such an important date. It was also an important anniversary. At the end of April, twenty years before the bombing, the US war in Vietnam was over with the fall of Saigon.

The Journal was one of the more productive products of two enterprises: The Psychosocial Stress Research Program at Florida State University that designed and funded the initial Green Cross Project in Oklahoma City was one important factor. The other was the Traumatic Stress Forum. Shortly after a dozen of us established the Traumatic Stress Forum in March, 1994, we knew the Internet would provide an extraordinary opportunity for traumatologists to collaborate on any of a number of important topics and projects.

It became clear to us that we needed a scholarly and professional e-journal to sort out what was happening in the field and share the fruits of our collective labor at a web site in a form similar to regular, print journals. It was important to have an editorial board that was recognized around the world as leaders in the field. The Board would insured that submission review process would be free of political and ideological bias and be accessible to members of the Green Cross Projects and other traumatologists. Shortly after publican of the first issue the new technology of the Web became apparent. Colleagues established three "mirror" sites for the Journal and many hundreds linked to the site starting in the summer of 1995.

Since then, the Journal published five volumes. Those volumes are available for purchase in either print or CD-ROM format. The body of work in those volumes are impressive. The coming five years of publication should be even better.

In this issue we include a variety of contributions. In the first peer-reviewed, research article, Selwyn Black and his major professor at the University of Ulster, Peter Weinreich, report on a potentially groundbreaking line of research. Adopting a paradigm similar but more quantifiable than countertransference, the investigators view the "instrument of self" of the counselor or simply counselor identity. This critically important factor is to clinical outcome studies the proverbial "elephant in the room no one talks about." Even with important new understanding and acceptance of compassion fatigue burnout and vicarious trauma (both a form of secondary traumatic stress reactions), the use of self as counselors for the traumatized is still under investigated.

Utilizing a method not well known in traumatology, the authors studied the ways counselors construct and
reconstruct their identity when confronted with the suffering of their clients following a traumatic event. This new approach, Identity Structure Analysis (ISA), has gradually evolved as an acceptable approach to studying the  identity of individuals in relation to their social world; structure and process relating to identity (Weinreich, 1985a, 1986a). The approach draws upon clinical, social, and personality psychology and the transpersonal psychology that together help define and build upon the work of Erikson (1963) and Laing (1962). This yields a view of identity as the sense of self that can account for who one is now in contrast to the past and future self.  Weinreich's contributions over the years is to "operationalized for empirical work using customized identity instruments that help the individual sense and express their own identity. He has explicitly defined the relevant psychological concepts that clarify and quantify identify and, thus, avoiding "crude post-hoc interpretation."

ISA parameters are formulated algebraically with explicitly defined psychological concepts, for some of which the algorithms use Boolean algebra.  Two recent dissertations using exploring the role of empathy secondary traumatic stress reactions supports the importance of this approach to identification studies. The central factors in the ISA concept of identification is empathic identification and role model identification.  'Empathetic identification with another refers to the degree of perceived similarity between the characteristics, whether good or bad, of that other and oneself" (Weinreich, 1989a, p. 52). Role model identification is the degree to which one might wish to emulate another when the other is a positive role model (idealistic identification), or dissociate from the other when a negative role model (contra identification)" (Weinreich, 1989a, p. 52). Weinreich further elaborates the distinction between the two modes: "…the role model identification mode refers to one’s orientations in terms of aspirations and dissociations (the mode of wishing to emulate and wishing to dissociate to varying
degrees), and the empathetic identification mode, situated from moment to moment in differing social contexts, refers to the de facto state of affinity with another of the current moment (the mode of being as the one or the other to varying degrees, at this moment now, or in this or that context, or doing this or that activity, and so on)" (Weinreich, 1989b, p. 224).

ISA theory suggests that conflicted identification occurs when one simultaneously sees oneself as similar to another and recognizes that other as having characteristics from which one wishes to dissociate. They speculate that there would be conflicted identification among those counselors who were involved in caring for the survivors of the 1998 Omagh Bombing in Northern Ireland. The group was well-trained in crisis intervention methods and represented a range of professional backgrounds. Each group member completed  an ISA instrument designed to be of direct significance to the respondents. The instrument incorporated ‘entities’ (e.g., "Me as I would like to be…") from the social world of the self – individuals, groups of people, institutions and emblems that have significance to the respondent, and ‘constructs’ (e.g., like/s me"). Each respondent also took part in a 25 – 40 minute semi-structured informal interview.

The results, presented as case studies, were all idiosyncratic in nature. The case studies exemplify the complex of processes of to construct and reconstruct their identities when when exposed to the terrible experiences of their traumatized clients. They report that the target group reported a higher extent of vulnerable identities across both past and current selves (44%) than in the control group (26%).  The Target Group was also more than twice as likely as the control group (45% vs. 20% respectively) to possess vulnerable identities in the appraisals of their current selves (45%) in contrast to the control group (20%).  Also, the target group of trauma workers reported more conflicted identifications with their clients (between 70% - 90%) compared to the control group (65%). This confirms the findings elsewhere that trauma workers show considerable emotional intensity in self appraisals.

The Editor noted (Figley, 1995) that compassion fatigue is a form of burnout that results from empathic identification and ". . . is frequently the characteristic that leads people to choose the role of helper, especially as a social worker, counselor, or other type of professional helper" (p. 252).  He also noted that empathic concerns, linked to emotional contagion (experiencing the feelings of the sufferer as a function of exposure to the sufferer) are amongst the components that contribute to compassion stress. According to his model, the two mitigating factors are a sense of satisfaction and the ability to create boundaries.

The results of the Black and Weinreich study (2000) indicated that the trauma workers under study experienced an increase in empathic identification since the Omagh tragedy. The majority of respondents (80%) demonstrate dissociation from both domestic and professional entities as they appraise themselves in the short-term aftermath of the Omagh bomb. The overall appraised dissociation from both domestic and professional people exhibits the respondents’ temporary incapability of social interaction and subsequent temporary alienation and decreased sense of connection with these significant others in the midst of trauma.

It was postulated and found that vicarious traumatization, through exposure to their client's traumatic experiences, would and did influence how respondents evaluated self in terms of both "aspirational and de facto identifications with significant others." Among other things, they found that: (1) Vicarious traumatization affects an increase in identification conflicts with traumatized and difficult clients that may be maintained over a prolonged period of time. (2) Vicarious traumatization leads counselors in the short term to experience alienation in their interpersonal relationships in both the domestic and professional contexts, that is, a degree of dissociation from others. (3) Vicarious traumatization has the potential to lead counselors to over-empathetically identify with their traumatized clients both in the short term, and over a prolonged period of time. (4) Vicarious traumatization in the long term will enable counselors to empathetically identify more closely with significant others in both their professional and domestic settings than prior to their traumatic involvement. These findings are consistent with studies and reports of other trauma workers.

The study also postulated and found that previous traumatic experiences would make an impact on how respondents appraise self in relation to their appraisal of working in the context of the Omagh bomb. Among other findings, they report that (1) Previous traumatic experiences (whether personal or professional) will reverberate with new traumatic encounters in the way counselors construe their identity in both the professional and domestic contexts that will be evidenced by similar patterns of identifications with significant others. (2) Previous traumatic experiences will have both positive and negative consequences on the way in which counselors currently construe their identity.

Finally, it was postulated and found that respondents, through exposure to the trauma of their clients, would experience shifts in the way they appraise their social world with regard to self and others. Among other findings, they report that (1) Counselors, upon exposure to the trauma of their clients, will in the first instance demonstrate a decreasing sense of trust in their professional belief and value systems by reverting to the safety of long-established familial belief and value systems. (2) Counselors, who suffer the effects of vicarious traumatization, will regard the issue of trust as the most important measure by which they appraise their social world. (3) Counselors, upon exposure to the trauma of their clients, will become preoccupied with trauma related issues that represent areas of contradiction and difficulty.

Black & Weinreich (2000) conclude that vicarious traumatization can have deleterious, cumulative and prolonged effects on the trauma counselor's identity. Although this particular research project, by its nature, requires caution before generalizing to other trauma workers, it is reasonable to conclude that a counselor's identity IS affected by traumatized or difficult clients. With a vulnerable identity, trauma workers are more vulnerable to the suffering of others. As they note, ". . . it is imperative that the caring professions be made more aware of the psychological impact of vicarious traumatization on counseling identity in those who deal with the survivors of trauma.  Because trauma workers are more likely to possess a disrupted self because of the nature of their work, training should emphasize the need to foster collegial support networks and self care that includes effectively balancing persona nd professional demands. This is consistent with the recommendations of others who have studied the traumatized. It is quite relevant to the next article.

The next research article is by Anne M. Dietrich (2000). The author, who is a Certified Traumatologist and member of the Green Cross Projects, notes how the pendulum swings throughout history to under or overemphasize the importance of external, traumatizing events. Dietrich notes that most recently investigators suggest that "it's all in the genes" and is only the latest form of blaming the victim and not the victimizer. With the note on the fist page that "Some of the material in this article may be disturbing to some readers," Dietrich provides a convincing argument for what has been conventional wisdom. Like Janet she asserts that distress and dissociation are caused by outside events that are traumatic. This concensus was most represted by the etiology of posttraumatic symptoms first introduced by the DSM-III in 1980 (American Psychiatric Association, 1980). This replaced the premorbid vulnerability theory, as the contributing factor to traumatic distress. Deitrich notes with caution the call for considering factors other than the traumatic context to account for PTSD. At the same time there is a call by investigators to consider a symptom pattern among chronically traumatized people that goes beyond simple PTSD.  The subtle call for reconsidering the inherent pathologies/vulnerabilities of the child and calling into question the causal relationship between the severity of the trauma and systematic disruptions in development. With good reason, Dietrich suggests that it is too early to know and, therefore, we must provide the clinical assistance as if PTSD is treatable. She cites a number of studies that indicate the risk and resiliency factors among child sexual abuse survivors.

Yet, she points out that when abuse is prolonged, severe, involves a family member, and is associated with neglect and lack of social support, that the effects are more damaging. And among those with significant tissue damage, she reasons, " . . . . the physiological response to such trauma would increase the likelihood of  biological numbing/peritraumatic dissociation, which has been shown to be predictive of PTSD (e.g., see van der Kolk, van der Hart, & Marmar, 1996). " It is likely that subjective factors and the nature of the traumatic stressor event(s) interact with each other and with contextual factors to result in the variations in outcome observed in those who have suffered enduring trauma. She calls into question the drift away from concern about context to a concern about etiology.

Finally, Dietrich (2000) concludes that because the effects of chronic child abuse on self-development and post-traumatic symptoms are complex, traumatologists need to be much more cautious in excluding areas of investigation. Because of this complexity, few studies go beyond the  is particulalry complex, with a myriad of possible variables contributing. No study exists today that stray beyond the standard, mainstream research paradigm and statistical methodology that can not handle such complexity. Standard studies are based on rather simplistic notions of univariate physical causation. She suggests that, as an alternative, it is important to consider a methodology that can adopt to the multivariate complexities of the effects of chronic abuse on human development and interpersonal relationships, among other effects. She supports the use of longitudinal designs and qualitative research, especially case study methodology. They enable the investigator to gain depth understanding of this complex area. The implications for clinical practice are obvious: The need to gather and be aware of the complexities of the client as a human being and the need to match more carefully the treatment methods and establishing and maintaining a strong therapeutic alliance with the traumatized client.

Charles M. Jaksec III, Robert F. Dedrick, and Richard B. Weinberg (2000) report on an innovative investigation of classroom teachers. They surveyed teachers' attitudes toward school-based crisis intervention in the event of an emergency. Columbine High School and the tragic shooting there on April 20, 1999, changed in one year US sensitivity toward school-based critical events. The investigators were interested in knowing about teacher attitudes toward in-class crisis intervention services and factors associated with these attitudes.  In this current period of heightened awareness about the dangers in schools, this study fills an important void. After all, if teachers do not believe there is a need for crisis intervention, policies requiring it need to be examined. The research team studied nine hundred twenty six full-time teachers from 45 public schools who completed a survey. Results indicated that teachers had positive attitudes toward the provision of in-class crisis intervention, with elementary school teachers possessing the most favorable attitudes. Further statistical analysis revealed that the most important factor in accounting for this positive view of crisis intervention is familiarity with the procedures, especially among the most efficacious and trained teachers. The authors reason that with greater numbers of teachers trained and effective in school-based crisis intervention methods, the safer will be our schools. It is reasonable to conclude that training in and preparing for the use of crisis intervention procedures enabled teachers to deal with any identity conflict (e.g., between being a crisis counselor and a teacher) and enabled teachers to experience unhelpful over identification with the students they are attempting to assist through the crisis intervention methods.

Nearly one-thousand full-time teachers from 45 public schools in a large southern US city completed a survey. The survey was constructed specifically for the study and designed to help community public policy specialists and planners determine the best best way to deliver post-crisis counseling. The results indicated universal teacher support for in-class crisis intervention, especially among teachers of younger children.

This issue marks a new chapter in the history of this Journal and the field of traumatology generally.  We selected Karen DeMeester to serve as Executive Editor of TRAUMATOLOGY.  Karen, with a  Ph.D. degree in English and a trauma-focused dissertation, is a Certified Traumatologist with hundreds of hours conducting oral history research through interviewing war veterans. She brings to the Journal years of experience as an assistant editor of a scholarly journal and a background in accounting.

As we journey into the new Millennium we anticipate that the past will be prologue; that old ways of working with the traumatized will continue. Yet much has happened in the five years since this Journal was established. A field of study, interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary in nature, has emerged. It is devoted to understanding and managing the trauma context by utilizing established scientific methods and applying this knowledge to promoting resilience among all affected by trauma.

This Journal's vision for the next ten years is to emerge as the most respected voice and educator of traumatologists worldwide who working with the traumatized. Traumatologists may function as investigators, service providers, reporters, nurses, social workers, family therapists, psychologists, psychiatrist, trauma medical professionals, and others who work with the traumatized.

We have an excellent Editorial Board, group of ad hoc reviewers, and support from the Green Cross Foundation and members of the Green Cross Projects. What we need are submissions. As with every journal, we thrive with excellent contributions. We accept all media forms, though our primary content are peer-reviewed, scholarly articles. Each is reviewed by at least two reviewers who are blind to authorship. Under the coordination of Karen DeMeester, as Executive Editor, we expect great things in this new era. We look forward to your feedback and other contributions.

Charles R. Figley, Ph.D.
Editor
April 26, 2000

American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third edition.
Washington, DC: Author.

Black, S. & Weinreich, P. (2000). An Exploration of Counselling Identity in Counsellors who deal with Trauma. Traumatology, 6: 1, Article 3.

Dietrich, A. M. (2000). As the Pendulum Swings: The Etiology of PTSD, Complex PTSD, and Revictimization. Traumatology, 6:1, Article 4.

Jaksec III, C. M., Dedrick, R. F., and Weinberg, R. B. (2000). Classroom Teachers' Ratings of the Acceptability of In-Class Crisis Intervention Services. Traumatology, 6:1, Article 5.

Weinreich, P. (1985a) Identity exploration in adolescence.International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 1, 51-71.

Weinreich, P. (1986a) The operationalisation of identity theory in racial and ethnic relations. In J. Rex and D. Mason (eds) Theories of race and ethnic relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.